As a member of the catecholamine family, dopamine is a precursor to epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in the biosynthetic pathways for
these neurotransmitters. Dopamine is synthesized in the body (mainly nervous
tissue and adrenal glands) by the decarboxylation of DOPA by
aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase.
Dopamine can be supplied as a drug which acts on the sympathetic nervous system,
producing effects such as increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Dopamine is also a neurohormone released by the hypothalamus. Its main function
is to inhibit the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
Chemical formula
Dopamine moleculeDopamine has the chemical formula (C6H3(OH)2-CH2-CH2-NH2). Its
chemical name is 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzene-1,2-diol and it is abbreviated "DA."
Arvid Carlsson won a share of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for
his work on dopamine's role as a neurotransmitter.
It is a type of neurotransmitter known as a catecholamine
Functions of Dopamine in the Brain
Role in Movement
Dopamine is critical to the way the brain controls our movements and is a
crucial part of the basal ganglia motor loop. Shortage of dopamine, particularly
the death of dopamine neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway, causes Parkinson's
disease, in which a person loses the ability to execute smooth, controlled
movements.
Role in Cognition and Frontal Cortex Function
In the frontal lobes, dopamine controls the flow of information from other areas
of the brain. Dopamine disorders in this region of the brain can cause a decline
in neurocognitive function, particularly those linked to memory, attention and
problem solving. This function is particularly related to the mesocortical
dopamine pathway.
Role in Pleasure and Motivation
Dopamine is commonly associated with the 'pleasure system' of the brain,
providing feelings of enjoyment and reinforcement to motivate us to do, or
continue doing, certain activities. Certainly dopamine is released (particularly
in areas such as the nucleus accumbens and striatum) by naturally rewarding
experiences such as food, sex, use of certain drugs and neutral stimuli that
become associated with them. This theory is often discussed in terms of drugs
(such as cocaine) which seem to directly produce dopamine release in these
areas, and in relation to neurobiological theories of addiction, which argue
that these dopamine pathways are pathologically altered in addicted persons.
However, the idea that dopamine is the 'reward chemical' of the brain now seems
too simple as more evidence has been gathered. Dopamine is known to be released
when unpleasant or aversive stimuli are encountered, suggesting that it is not
only associated with 'rewards' or pleasure. Also, the firing of dopamine neurons
occurs when a pleasurable activity is expected, regardless of whether it
actually happens or not. This suggests that dopamine may be involved in desire
rather than pleasure. Drugs that are known to reduce dopamine activity (e.g.
antipsychotics) have been shown to reduce people's desire for pleasurable
stimuli, despite the fact that they will rate them as just as pleasurable when
they actually encounter or consume them. It seems that these drugs reduce the
'wanting' but not the 'liking', providing more evidence for the desire theory.
Other theories suggest that the crucial role of dopamine may be in predicting
pleasurable activity. Related theories argue that dopamine function may be
involved in the salience ('noticeableness') of perceived objects and events,
with potentially important stimuli (including rewarding things, but also things
which may be dangerous or a threat) appearing more noticeable or more important.
This theory argues that dopamine's role is to assist decision making by
influencing the priority of such stimuli to the person concerned.
Dopamine and Psychosis
Disruption to the dopamine system has also been strongly linked to psychosis and
schizophrenia. Dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic pathway are particularly
associated with these conditions. This is partly due to the discovery of a class
of drugs called the phenothiazines (which block D2 dopamine receptors) that can
reduce psychotic symptoms, and partly due to the finding that drugs such as
amphetamine and cocaine (which are known to greatly increase dopamine levels)
can cause psychosis. Because of this, all modern antipsychotic medication is
designed to block dopamine function to varying degrees.
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